MMOGs (massively multiplayer online games) and their rise across the net The WritePass Journal

MMOGs (massively multiplayer online games) and their rise across the net Introduction MMOGs (massively multiplayer online games) and their rise across the net IntroductionNetwork ServerOperating Systems Game Playing SoftwareReferencingRelated Introduction MMOGs are an abbreviation for Massively Multiplayer Online Game. This is a video game which is capable of supporting hundreds and thousands of players interacting with this running video. Gaming platforms have become diverse and a universal game environment is supported. MMOGs require specific hardware and software to play and be a part of these online games. Firstly a Personal Computer (PC), keyboard, mouse, screen, graphics card, sound card, speakers, head sets, a suitable operating system, sufficient RAM, a hard disk needs to be present. If required, joysticks can also be used to play these games for the best gaming experience.   The operating system (OS) is a key requirement needed in all PCs to play a MMOG. The hardware connects to the BIOS which is connected to the OS connecting the low level machine code to the application software which is high level language such as JAVA and COBOL. Consequently connection to the graphics driver, gaming code then straight to the virtual world it is connected to. The OSI model is responsible for effective communication of data through each layer on the PC and the servers machine.   Therefore when a user is playing a game the data will flow from the gateway server to the log in or zone server to the world server into the database which is where the data for MMOG is stored. MMOGs can be played by it connection to a game server. A game server is a remotely or locally run server used by game clients to play MMOGs or video games. Most video games played over the Internet operate via a connection to a game server usually via different networks connected through cables, tracks and busses from the motherboard to the gaming server. A user will connect to a MMOG using an internet connection where the user’s actions will be sent to and retrieved by a server which then calculated a new game state and send this back through the linked connection   to the player, with the series of actions repeating. Furthermore, as multi-platform game technology continues to grow, this allows one game to be played in a different platform concurrently, as advances in the development of distributed game server including the less popular listen server technology is necessary to support large numbers of parallel game including their users safely when playing online. MMOGs, in which large numbers of users play a game in the same virtual gaming world, is a big field of heavy server loads due to game event handling, this leads to problems of latency server, client packet loss. This graph shows the amount of MMOGs have been subscribed to since 1997. It shows that more and more people are becoming attracted to playing MMOGS up until 2008 as the graph does not go any further. The most popular game that is shown is World of Warcraft with over ten million subscribers to the game. Personal Computer or Console As online gaming enters the mainstream, system requirements of the personal computer (PC) are moving tremendously in performance. The key issue is that online gamine needs to meet the growing necessities of gamers and online gaming membership. In order to facilitate this, games must have a powerful processor to maximise the game playing experience. The processors role is vital to any computer as it manages the entire system for example where to start and stop executing commands inputted by the user. The processor will fetch data needed by the instruction commanded by the user and returning this processed instruction after execution, then again fetching instructions inputted for example the user loads a game. Consequently after the control unit has fetched, executed and decoded an instruction the program counter holds the address of the next instruction within the memory for example the user has clicked on start game after loading the game. The instruction pointer keeps track of where in the program the instruction has reached. in a system starting from input from a joystick for example into the memory where it is processed and stored if needed with the necessary output given in the form of for example moving 3d images on the screen. The processor manages multiple roles as it carries out many instructions and thus becomes complex for running the operating system (OS) (1), the web browser or the downloaded Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOG).Therefore the better the processor the faster the quality/ performance when playing a MMOG without any pauses and halts. The latest Intel i7 2.8 GHz processor containing 8 cores for 8 way multi-tasking and an L3 Cache which delivers top class performance during game playing. Random access memory (RAM) is used to temporarily store the applications used to play the MMOGS allows reading and writing to be carried out. RAM is volatile memory as when there is no power sourced to the RAM, data cannot be retained(1). The highest amount of RAM available is 8GB DDR3, continually expanding. Hence the more RAM the more available space the PC has to store the current game being played. The hard disk, secondary memory can be used to store a game or the application needed to play the game. This uses sequential access which contains rotating disks (3). It works by looking up data needed to be processed from the game players input processing this data from the calculations made in the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and saves it in the cache which is a high temporary storage place that makes and answers requests. The hard disks capacity can now increase up to 1terabtye within newer PC’s. The GPU forms the core of the graphics card that usually sits inside a slot on the motherboard(10) but sometimes it is pre integrated into the motherboard. It roles and responsibilities for processing images, creating the picture displayed by the monitor for example the 3d moving images in MMOGs. The GPU is a specialised processor that runs calculations of advanced image processing especially 3D Graphics(2). The GPU contains a separate processing unit as it stores images before displaying them. The graphics card is able to allocate slots when viewing 3D scenes for instance in MMOGs similar to the CPU where it can process data for example dual core processors which can carry out two instructions at the same time. The GPU enables a third processor to process its own data speeding up operations such as playing games which are wholly based on images, 3d images and moving images within the computer for example speeding up the sequence of the images played from the game(2). The GPU talks to the frame buffer to designate parts of memory used to store images before viewing it. RAM DAC, random access memory digital to analogue coveter converts the digital images stored in the frame buffer into analogue, which is then sent to the screen to be displayed. The GPU also contains BIOS similar to the CPU, which loads when the computer starts(2). The interface connects the graphics card to the motherboard requiring high broadband necessary for displaying video clips and 3d images within games(2). The basic sound card is printed on the circuit board, which uses analogue to digital AC DC converter and a PIC interface card to connect to the motherboard and input output connectors for microphone and speakers(6). The sound card enables sounds to be heard from the speakers or gaming headset for audible effects when playing MMOG’s creating different moods and scenes. The screen often referred to as a monitor, where by the display is the most common form of used output, with feedback in the form of text and graphical images used to view the game when it is being played(5). Most desktop screens use liquid crystal display (LCD) or cathode ray tube (CRT) technology. For an ultra-sharp Display when playing games the TFT active matrix 24in – Widescreen, with a Max Resolution of 1920 x 1200, Colour Support of 16.7 million colours. Other output devices include speakers and a gaming 2.4GHz head set. The function of a keyboard as an input device where people can type, inputting data, use shortcuts to control many programmes, access menus also games(7). The keyboard also includes control keys providing cursor and screen control which is needed to play many MMOGs for example using the left, right, up and down arrows(7). There are many types of mice an input device; the main ones include a mechanical scroll mouse, optical mouse and a track ball mouse(8). A laser point mouse which uses light-emitting diodes (LED) or laser as a way of tracking movements is the most common enabling MMOGs to be played easier due to its swift broad movements making game playing easier as there is no wire attached.  Ã‚   Other mice include of foot mouse for disabled people, joystick mouse for gamers and a touch pad mouse. Lastly a common input device, the joystick which helps gamers to truly personalise their gaming and flight stimulation experiences. This includes a dual throttle lever for control of a multi-engine aircraft, twisted axes, adjustable hat switches, scroll buttons and trigger buttons to enable MMOGs to be played in a variety of ways making them more interesting. Many of these input and output devices can have an interface with PCs by serial ports and USB. Network Server A game server is a remotely run or a locally run server which can be used by gamers to play MMOGs. Most games that are played over the internet function by having a connection to a game server. Thus online game ply is impacted bythe network characteristics of players that are at one time connected to the game server. Many online games allow a choice from a wide range of servers available. This is the case for many MMOGs as users can run their own servers allowing players to connect from anywhere on the internet. This is known as a listen server, a dedicated server also exists. These are the two types of servers used to play MMOGs. Listen servers are peer to peer servers which run on the same PC as the gamer client. When the gamer disconnects this server is shut down because the server and the host client are run symmetrically. This means that the game must be transferred to another player or end completely which is not preferred on a big server as the host needs to either stay online wasting slots in the server and computer power possibly slowing the game or ending the game for all other players. Due to the small processing size listen servers will also not be able to handle the client’s game, server processing and the hack detection as it is difficult to function correctly without the required processing power. Although they are easy to set up by simply creating a new game then allowing players to join. Also the user only requires one PC in contrast to a dedicated server that either allows client to host the server or play a game. The client cannot physically do both unless there is a second PC/ machin e. Dedicated servers are client to peer which run independently of the clients. They are set up on a separate PC which is often hosted in a data centre. This means that they will have a high processor for high amounts of processing and high bandwidth as it does not need to share a CPU with the players game. In general dedicated servers are the preferred method of hosting game servers for most PC based MMOGs. It is beneficial to those who demand more control, the freedom to install multiple games onto the server. Due to its general processing ability it can then support a huge number of players at the same time. Network Connection What level of network quality service should be provided to maintain a satisfactory gaming experience? The network has a huge impact on MMOGs. Having a reliable network connection means that players are able to log onto a network online which is available and use the services provided such as playing games buying game subscriptions etc. Without a network connection MMOGs cannot be played. Kuan et al have found that network delay and network loss significantly affect a players willingness to continue playing a game. MMOGs depend upon the network connection for their operation on the speed and reliability of this network connection. Firstly bandwidth which is the average rate of successful data transfer through a communications path which is usually measured in kilobits and megabits per second. The more bandwidth available more data can be transferred through the Ethernet cable for playing MMOGs. In contrast latency is delay, the amount of time it takes a packet to travel from its source to its destination. A low latency network connection will experience small delays whereas playing a MMOG on a high latency network connection will generally be prone to more delays which can be expressed in mili seconds. One way which latency can be measured is small packets of miniature data (32 bytes) is sent to the host and the round time trip (RTT), the time it takes for the packet to leave the sourced address travels to its destination and sent back is then measured. When playing MMOGs the more bandwidth ava ilable more data will be transferred during a second speeding up game play. Also the less the latency the less delay it will take for each pat of the game to be displayed without pauses and stops. Thus the combination of latency and bandwidth gives the user a perception of how quickly the game can be played and necessary data transformed. Server packet loss rate is also another factor that affects speed and reliability of a network connection in MMOGs. This concerns the loss of ratio packets sent from the game server to the player which credits for added latency before state updates or game messages are presented on the screen to the players. Client packet loss rate concerns the loss ratio of packets sent to the game server by players which credits for added latency before a players commands can be handled by the game server as loss detection and recovery cost precious time. This general diagram shows the process when playing MMOGs in real time. The client is playing a game and their actions are received by the server and it then calculates the game state, which is then sent, then the server again does new actions which is received by the server and it then calculates the new game state, thus sending this new game state back to the pc and this cycle continues until the user has finished playing the game. In more detail MMOGs often use distributed servers which are required to support a large number of concurrent games. The data is sent from the user to the gateway server which passes on the information to the zone or login server which then goes to the world sever connecting to the database of the game that is being played, the new data is then sent back through these severs back to the user’s PC. This data is sent using the CPU or the micro-processor which connected to all the elements of the computers components for example the games input and output elements via cables and he bus which is a sub system used for the transfer of data between the different computer components and the networks which enable the PC to connect to the gaming server(1). This is called Serial Advanced Technology Attachment(5). The busses are highly flexible as they can become external busses, in connecting different machines together such as connecting to the game server. The communication between the server and the game client can be divided into three main sections. This figure provides an outline of the architecture which illustrates the physical and logical layout of the game application and the communications legitimized between the server and the game clients. The data access layer within extracts the database from the application allows the systems to retrieve data representing objects in the database. The application layer system features implemental of users, online games, game modes, game states etc. Lastly the presentation layer which consists of HTML and java scrip, basic page templates and display, dynamic views of the system are presented to the user. Operating Systems Game Playing Software An operating system (OS) can be said to be a system software which is responsible for direct control and managing of input, output hardware and basic system operations. In addition it is a foundation upon which the application software such as web browsers and gaming software can be run. A operating system that can be used to play games on is Windows 7 a 64 bit operating system. The role of the OS is to manage the hardware and software resources and interact with the data and its presentation. OS process management ensures that for example if the game is being played it receives sufficient process time for the expert functioning also states that the processor is used to its optimum capacity. OS storage management allocates the relevant or necessary memory space for the game application and its connected hardware in the one of the different available memories for effective and optimum processing of information. OS device management manages input output devices, programs with device drivers conjoined with the OS controls the flow of information with allocation of system resources to ensure correct input and output from for example the joystick. Lastly the OS user interface provides a consistent way of communication between the user and the game being played for example if one was playing the game in real time efficient communication would be needed to be prese nt. A general game server needs a kernel 2.0.24 or better and a good OS for example Linux. Linux is a good in distributed networking game servers. This is because it gives incredible performance to host the games compared to bulky terminals. Also it is thus possible to customise it to the hardware and load requirements of the game which is being hosted as it uses a user friendly kernel configuration file as well as the full source availability for this kernel. The Linux OS system resources receive sufficient processing time and the processor being used to its optimum capacity when hosting a game. It can also manage input and output well including managing the data to host the game extremely well. The game playing software can both be bought and downloaded online, or from a shop where by the games software will be present on a cd. This software is then installed on a PC ready for the gamer to play. It interacts with the data from the internet as it established a connection with the server and the OS along with the internet can transmit and receive data which is then converted from binary data into a high level language that the PC understands such as java, COBOL. This language is then then transferred into graphical moving images which the user can interpret and understand and continue to play the game for example the user will know if he has been shot or he has killed a person. The game servers use specialised software of the game which the server is dedicated to although it will contain different data as in order to run a game on a game server it has to be able to host games etc. which normal game playing software cannot do. The game servers game software interacts with data similarly via the internet by establishing a connection with a sever which then can connect to a player and thus the game can be successfully played. The game server is a distinct process, usually upon a different machine, which retains information on whichever virtual world it supports at that particular time. It converses with the game clients used by the players to retain global information about joint locations, player interaction. For example, each player will have different window into their joint virtual location depending on where they are in the game. The scenes accessible to the players must be consistent so if one player changes the state of an object for example, that objec t must exist for all the other players and be in the same state. Although Presentation does not need to be considered as the gamers do not see what goes on inside a gaming server although those who maintain gaming servers need the data to be available in a readable form so that with their technical knowledge they can successfully manage the game server. The games engine works by the operating system loading the game server onto its system including the graphic drivers. The server connects to the network code and other instances of the game. This then connects to the gaming code for example a high level language then connecting to the virtual worlds where many players can play the MMOG. Conclusion Online games have continued to increase in popularity, with the MMOGs being played over a type of computer network connected to the internet starting with the basic hardware, this needs to be up to date with the latest hardware installed in the pc for example keyboards, joysticks need to be compatible with the game that is being played. For the best gaming experience a NVIDIA graphics card which has its own separate processor, a good quality sound card with speakers are needed. This increase in popularity of online gaming has resulted to the huge growth of the internet, different network connections are now available, these include peer to peer and client server architectures which enables anyone with a connection to the network, internet is able to play a MMOG and interact even in real time with other players due to the high processing ability on servers networks are now able to support many millions of players. Although bandwidth and better network connections are increasing and have become present in the busses and cables this does not mean that the network connection is completely reliable. Due to the millions of clients connection to a game or several games at different times this can still lead to problems of latency where packets take longer to reach their destination so this could bring about small pauses in the MMOG. Also some locations such as remote locations may receive less bandwidth which then in turn affects the game as the game play will decrease especially if it is in real time as this data travels from the user, to the log in server, zone server, and world server to the databases. MMOGs require the OSI mode to function in which the important parts, the data access layer executes the database from the MMOG application. Following the application layer features implementations of clients, game modes etc. as lastly the presentation presents the displays and dynamic views of the game to clients. Therefore as technology grows the scope for playing MMOGs increases as better facilities are provided and are constantly developing to do so. 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History of Women Inventors Who Filed Patents

History of Women Inventors Who Filed Patents Before the 1970s, the topic of women in history was largely missing from general public consciousness. To address this situation, the Education Task Force on the Status of Women initiated a Womens History Week celebration in 1978 and chose the week of March 8 to coincide with International Womens Day. In 1987, the National Womens History Project petitioned Congress to expand the celebration to the entire month of March. Since then, the National Womens History Month Resolution has been approved every year with bipartisan support in both the House and Senate. The First Woman to File an American Patent In 1809, Mary Dixon Kies received the first U. S. patent issued to a woman. Kies, a Connecticut native, invented a process for weaving straw with silk or thread. First Lady Dolley Madison praised her for boosting the nations hat industry. Unfortunately, the patent file was destroyed in the great Patent Office fire in 1836. Until about 1840, only 20 other patents were issued to women. The inventions related to apparel, tools, cook stoves, and fireplaces. Naval Inventions In 1845, Sarah Mather received a patent for the invention of a submarine telescope and lamp. This was a remarkable device that permitted sea-going vessels to survey the depths of the ocean. Martha Coston perfected then patented her deceased husbands idea for a pyrotechnic flare. Costons husband, a former naval scientist, died leaving behind only a rough sketch in a diary of plans for the flares. Martha developed the idea into an elaborate system of flares called Night Signals that allowed ships to communicate messages nocturnally. The U. S. Navy bought the patent rights to the flares. Costons flares served as the basis of a system of communication that helped to save lives and to win battles. Martha credited her late husband with the first patent for the flares, but in 1871 she received a patent for an improvement exclusively her own. Paper Bags Margaret Knight was born in 1838. She received her first patent at the age of 30, but inventing was always part of her life. Margaret or Mattie as she was called in her childhood, made sleds and kites for her brothers while growing up in Maine. When she was just 12 years old, she had an idea for a stop-motion device that could be used in textile mills to shut down machinery, preventing workers from being injured. Knight eventually received some 26 patents. Her machine that made flat-bottomed paper bags is still used to this very day! 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition The 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition was a World Fair-like event held to celebrate the amazing progress of the century-old United States of America. The leaders of early feminist and womens suffrage movements had to aggressively lobby for the inclusion of a womans department in the exposition. After some firm pressing, the Centennial Womens Executive Committee was established, and a separate Womans Pavilion erected. Scores of women inventors either with patents or with patents pending displayed their inventions. Among them was Mary Potts and her invention Mrs. Potts Cold Handle Sad Iron patented in 1870. Chicagos Columbian Exposition in 1893 also included a Womans Building. A unique safety elevator invented by multi-patent holder Harriet Tracy and a device for lifting and transporting invalids invented by Sarah Sands were among the many items featured at this event. Traditionally womens undergarments consisted of brutally tight corsets meant to shape womens waists into unnaturally small forms. Some suggested that the reason women seemed so fragile, expected to faint at any time, was because their corsets prohibited proper breathing. Enlightened womens groups throughout the nation resoundingly agreed that less restrictive underclothing was in order. Susan Taylor Converses one-piece flannel Emancipation Suit, patented August 3, 1875, eliminated the need for a suffocating corset and became an immediate success. A number of womens groups lobbied for Converse to give up the 25-cent royalty she received on each Emancipation Suit sold, an effort that she rejected. Linking the emancipation of women from constrictive undergarments to her own freedom to profit from her intellectual property, Converse responded: With all your zeal for womens rights, how could you even suggest that one woman like myself should give of her head and hand labor without fair compensation? Perhaps its a no-brainer that women inventors should turn their minds to making better the things that often concern women the most. The Ultimate Home The ultimate convenience invention must certainly be woman inventor Frances Gabe’s self-cleaning house. The house, a combination of some 68 time-, labor-, and space-saving mechanisms, makes the concept of housework obsolete. Each of the rooms in the termite-proof, cinder block constructed, the self-cleaning house is fitted with a 10-inch, ceiling-mounted cleaning/drying/heating/cooling device. The walls, ceilings, and floors of the house are covered with resin, a liquid that becomes water-proof when hardened. The furniture is made of a water-proof composition, and there are no dust-collecting carpets anywhere in the house. At the push of a sequence of buttons, jets of soapy water wash the entire room. Then, after a rinse, the blower dries up any remaining water that hasn’t run down the sloping floors into a waiting drain. The sink, shower, toilet, and bathtub all clean themselves. The bookshelves dust themselves while a drain in the fireplace carries away ashes. The clothes closet is also a washer/drier combination. The kitchen cabinet is also a dishwasher; simply pile in soiled dishes, and don’t bother taking them out until they are needed again. Not only is the house of practical appeal to overworked homeowners, but also to physically handicapped people and the elderly. Frances Gabe (or Frances G. Bateson) was born in 1915 and now resides comfortably in Newberg, Oregon in the prototype of her self-cleaning house. Gabe gained experience in housing design and construction at an early age from working with her architect father. She entered the Girl’s Polytechnic College in Portland, Oregon at age 14 finishing a four-year program in just two years. After World War II, Gabe with her electrical engineer husband started a building repairs business that she ran for more than 45 years. In addition to her building/inventing credits, Frances Gabe is also an accomplished artist, musician, and mother. Fashion Forward Fashion designer Gabriele Knecht realized something that clothes makers were neglecting in their clothing designs- that our arms come out of our sides in a slightly forward direction, and we work them in front of our bodies. Knecht’s patented Forward Sleeve design is based on this observation. It lets the arms move freely without shifting the whole garment and allows clothes to drape gracefully on the body. Knecht was born in Germany in 1938 and came to America when she was 10 years old. She studied fashion design, and in 1960, received a bachelor of fine arts degree from Washington University in St. Louis. Knecht also took courses in physics, cosmology, and other areas of science that may seem unrelated to the fashion industry. Her broadened knowledge, however, helped her understand shapes and methods of pattern design. In 10 years she filled 20 notebooks with sketches, analyzed all the angles that sleeves can take, and made 300 experimental patterns and garments. Although Knecht had been a successful designer for several New York companies, she felt she had more creative potential. Struggling to start her own business, Knecht met a buyer from Saks Fifth Avenue department store who liked Knecht’s designs. Soon she was creating them exclusively for the store, and they sold well. In 1984 Knecht received the first annual More Award for the best new designer of women’s fashions. Carol Wior is the woman inventor of the Slimsuit, a swimsuit guaranteed to take an inch or more off the waist or tummy and to look natural. The secret to a slimmer look in the inner lining that shapes the body in specific areas, hiding bulges and giving a smooth, firm appearance. The Slimsuit comes with a tape measure to prove the claim. Wior was already a successful designer when she envisioned the new swimsuit. While on vacation in Hawaii, she always seemed to be pulling and tugging on her swimsuit to try to get it to cover properly, all the while trying to hold in her stomach. She realized other women were just as uncomfortable and began to think of ways to make a better swimsuit. Two years and a hundred trail patterns later, Wior achieved the design she wanted. Wior began her designing career at only 22 years old in her parents garage in Arcadia, California. With $77 and three sewing machines bought at auction, she made classic, elegant but affordable dresses and delivered them to her customers in an old milk truck. Soon she was selling to major retail stores and was quickly building a multi-million dollar business. At age 23, she was one of the youngest fashion entrepreneurs in Los Angeles. Protecting the Children When Ann Moore was a Peace Corps volunteer, she observed mothers in French West Africa carrying their babies securely on their backs. She admired the bonding between the African mother and child and wanted the same closeness when she returned home and had her own baby. Moore and her mother designed a carrier for Moores daughter similar to those she saw in Togo. Ann Moore and her husband formed a company to make and market the carrier, called the Snugli (patented in 1969). Today babies all over the world are being carried close to their mothers and fathers. In 1912, the beautiful soprano opera singer and actress of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Lillian Russell, patented a combination dresser-trunk built solidly enough to remain intact during travel and doubled as a portable dressing room. Silver Screen superstar Hedy Lamarr (Hedwig Kiesler Markey) with the help of composer George Antheil invented a secret communication system in an effort to help the allies defeat the Germans in World War II. The invention, patented in 1941, manipulated radio frequencies between transmission and reception to develop an unbreakable code so that top-secret messages could not be intercepted. Julie Newmar, a living Hollywood film and television legend, is a women inventor. The former Catwoman patented ultra-sheer, ultra-snug pantyhose. Known for her work in films such as Seven Brides for Seven Brothers and Slaves of Babylon, Newmar has also appeared recently in Fox Televisions Melrose Place and the hit feature-film To Wong Fu, Thanks for Everything, Love Julie Newmar. Ruffles, fluted collars, and pleats were very popular in Victorian-era clothing. Susan Knoxs fluting iron made pressing the embellishments easier. The trademark featured the inventors picture and appeared on each iron. Women have made many contributions to advance the fields of science and engineering. Nobel Prize Winner Katherine Blodgett (1898-1979) was a woman of many firsts. She was the first female scientist hired by General Electric’s Research Laboratory in Schenectady, New York (1917) as well as the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in Physics from Cambridge University (1926). Blodgett’s research on monomolecular coatings with Nobel Prize-winning Dr. Irving Langmuir led her to a revolutionary discovery. She discovered a way to apply the coatings layer by layer to glass and metal. The thin films, which naturally reduced glare on reflective surfaces, when layered to a certain thickness, would completely cancel out the reflection from the surface underneath. This resulted in the world’s first 100% transparent or invisible glass. Blodgett’s patented film and process (1938) has been used for many purposes including limiting distortion in eyeglasses, microscopes, telescopes, camera, and projector lenses. Programming Computers Grace Hopper (1906-1992) was one of the first programmers to transform large digital computers from oversized calculators into relatively intelligent machines capable of understanding human instructions. Hopper developed a common language with which computers could communicate called Common Business-Oriented Language or COBOL, now the most widely used computer business language in the world. In addition to many other firsts, Hopper was the first woman to graduate from Yale University with a Ph.D. in Mathematics, and in 1985, was the first woman ever to reach the rank of admiral in the US Navy. Hopper’s work was never patented; her contributions were made before computer software technology was even considered a patentable field. Invention of Kevlar Stephanie Louise Kwolek’s research with high-performance chemical compounds for the DuPont Company led to the development of a synthetic material called Kevlar which is five times stronger than the same weight of steel. Kevlar, patented by Kwolek in 1966, does not rust nor corrode and is extremely lightweight. Many police officers owe their lives to Stephanie Kwolek, for Kevlar is the material used in bulletproof vests. Other applications of the compound include underwater cables, brake linings, space vehicles, boats, parachutes, skis, and building materials. Kwolek was born in New Kensington, Pennsylvania in 1923. Upon graduating in 1946 from the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie-Mellon University) with a bachelor’s degree, Kwolek went to work as a chemist at the DuPont Company. She would ultimately obtain 28 patents during her 40-year tenure as a research scientist. In 1995, Kwolek was inducted into the Hall of Fame. Inventors NASA Valerie Thomas received a patent in 1980 for inventing an illusion transmitter. This futuristic invention extends the idea of television, with its images located flatly behind a screen, to having three-dimensional projections appear as though they were right in your living room. Perhaps in the not-so-distant future, the illusion transmitter will be as popular as the TV is today. Thomas worked as a mathematical data analyst for NASA after receiving a degree in physics. She later served as project manager for the development of NASA’s image-processing system on Landsat, the first satellite to send images from outer space. In addition to having worked on several other high-profile NASA projects, Thomas continues to be an outspoken advocate for minority rights. Barbara Askins, a former teacher, and mother, who waited until after her two children entered school to complete her B. S. in chemistry followed by a Master’s degree in the same field, developed a totally new way of processing film. Askins was hired in 1975 by NASA to find a better way to develop astronomical and geological pictures taken by researchers. Until Askins’ discovery, these images, while containing valuable information, were hardly visible. In 1978 Askins patented a method of enhancing the pictures using radioactive materials. The process was so successful that its uses were expanded beyond NASA research to improvements in X-ray technology and in the restoration of old pictures. Barbara Askins was named National Inventor of the Year in 1978. Ellen Ochoa’s pre-doctoral work at Stanford University in electrical engineering led to the development of an optical system designed to detect imperfections in repeating patterns. This invention, patented in 1987, can be used for quality control in the manufacturing of various intricate parts. Dr. Ochoa later patented an optical system which can be used to robotically manufacture goods or in robotic guiding systems. In all Ellen Ochoa has received three patents, most recently in 1990. In addition to being a woman inventor, Dr. Ochoa is also a research scientist and astronaut for NASA who has logged hundreds of hours in space. Inventing Geobond Patricia Billings received a patent in 1997 for a fire resistant building material called Geobond. Billings’ work as a sculpture artist put her on a journey to find or develop a durable additive to prevent her painstaking plaster works from accidentally falling and shattering. After nearly two decades of basement experiments, the result of her efforts was a solution which when added to a mixture of gypsum and concrete, creates an amazingly fire resistant, indestructible plaster. Not only can Geobond add longevity to artistic works of plastic, but also it is steadily being embraced by the construction industry as an almost universal building material. Geobond is made with non-toxic ingredients which make it the ideal replacement for asbestos. Currently, Geobond is being sold in more than 20 markets worldwide, and Patricia Billings, great grandmother, artist, and woman inventor remains at the helm of her carefully constructed Kansas City-based empire. Women care and women care as inventors. Many female inventors have turned their skills on finding ways to save lives. Invention of Nystatin As researchers for the New York Department of Health, Elizabeth Lee Hazen and Rachel Brown combined their efforts to develop the anti-fungal antibiotic drug Nystatin. The drug, patented in 1957 was used to cure many disfiguring, disabling fungal infections as well as to balance the effect of many antibacterial drugs. In addition to human ailments, the drug has been used to treat such problems as Dutch Elms disease and to restore water-damaged artwork from the effects of mold. The two scientists donated the royalties from their invention, over $13 million dollars, to the nonprofit Research Corporation for the advancement of academic scientific study. Hazen and Brown were inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1994. Fighting Disease Gertrude Elion patented the leukemia-fighting drug 6-mercaptopurine in 1954 and has made a number of significant contributions to the medical field. Dr. Elions research led to the development of Imuran, a drug that aids the body in accepting transplanted organs, and Zovirax, a drug used to fight herpes. Including 6-mercaptopurine, Elions name is attached to some 45 patents. In 1988 she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine with George Hitchings and Sir James Black. In retirement, Dr. Elion, who was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1991, continues to be an advocate for medical and scientific advancement. Stem Cell Research Ann Tsukamoto is co-patenter of a process to isolate the human stem cell; the patent for this process was awarded in 1991. Stem cells are located in bone marrow and serve as the foundation for the growth of red and white blood cells. Understanding how stem cells grow or how they might be artificially reproduced is vital to cancer research. Tsukamotos work has led to great advancements in comprehending the blood systems of cancer patients and may one day lead to a cure for the disease. She is currently directing further research in the areas of stem cell growth and cellular biology. Patient Comfort Betty Rozier and Lisa Vallino, a mother and daughter team, invented an intravenous catheter shield to make the use of IVs in hospitals safer and easier. The computer-mouse shaped, polyethylene shield covers the site on a patient where an intravenous needle has been inserted. The IV House prevents the needle from being accidentally dislodged and minimizes its exposure to patient tampering. Rozier and Vallino received their patent in 1993. After fighting breast cancer and undergoing a mastectomy in 1970, Ruth Handler, one of the creators of the Barbie Doll, surveyed the market for a suitable prosthetic breast. Disappointed in the options available, she set about designing a replacement breast that was more similar to a natural one. In 1975, Handler received a patent for Nearly Me, a prosthesis made of material close in weight and density to natural breasts.

Business plan of online business Research Paper

Business plan of online business - Research Paper Example Party Safaris seeks to be a leading global business in the field of event management and organization, specializing in two types of products. The first service provided and undertaken by Party Safaris Event Management Company is actual event management from the start to the end of the event. These events range in wide varieties from weddings, to funerals, to birthdays, as well as corporate and cocktail parties. This service will also incorporate provision of party kits for the participants in the event, and the company will undertake the sole task of planning and executing the entire event from start to finish. The second service provided by the company will be the sale of party kits through an online platform. The company will produce and stock several types of party kits then sell them to customers who are planning or organizing parties, or to those who come to us to organize their parties. These party kits will range from party kits for adults’ birthdays, to party kits for kids birthdays. The company will also provide original party kits for other parties that might not fall necessary under the two categories of parties mentioned above. From the onset of the business, the operations and management of the business will be the sole prerogative of the four founders of the company. These four directors came up with an idea of setting up an events management company in Monaco. Therefore, they will have to put their best efforts into the operations of the company in order to save on costs of operations before the business picks up and expands. However, the directors plan to hire more staff depending on the needs and demands of the business. The first most likely member of staff for the team of four to hire will be an Information and Technology (IT) manager who will be in charge of operating the online operations of the company. From the start, the basis for remuneration for the IT manager will be on an hourly basis

Distance Education Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Distance Education - Research Paper Example It is therefore a vital concept that serves the interest of the people of all categories, both full time and part time students, who may also be engaged in other aspects of life such as working, or even domestic responsibilities, thus they may not be able to attend to a classroom setting. The change in the social, economic and technological conditions have brought about the need for educational advancement, considering that the more the society advances in the technological, social and economic spheres, the higher the demand for educational attainment and advancement. Therefore, the concept â€Å"is emerging as an increasingly important component of higher education† (Bradford, 1999). It has opened an opportunity that can be exploited by those who have always had the desire to advance their education, but were limited by the traditional concept of attending classrooms. This opportunity is even more crucial to the disabled people, who are well served through Distance Education, as opposed to attending physical classrooms, which proves a great challenge for them (Barnard-Brak, Paton, & Sulak, n.d.). Additionally, Distance Education has made it possible for â€Å"Adults who work full time, family people, and people from remote countries all over the world† to access education, while they â€Å"would otherwise never even dream of it† (Bozorgmanesh, 2011). Despite all these benefits as provided by Distance Education, there are numerous challenges that are associated with this modern concept. Therefore, this discussion seeks to critically assess the concept of Distance Education, with a focus on advancing the argument that Distance Education is not an effective mode of Education acquisition. Discussion First, the mode of offering instructions highly determines how effective learning will be for students. Therefore, it is highly unlikely that technology, the means through which Distance Education is offered, can replace the instructional offering made by the teachers in a classroom setting. For example, the stakeholders and the teachers of Eagle County, CO, school district opposed â€Å"replacing face-to-face instructors with a digital option they argued would not be as rich or as meaningful† (Quillen, 2012). It is easier for teachers issuing direct instructions to the students, to assess whether students are clearly understanding the instructions given, since the absorption of instructions is not only assessable through the performance of a student in a test, but also through the observable behavior of such a student. While learning in a classroom setting offers an opportunity for the teacher to assess how well the students have internalized the instructions, the concept of Distance Education does not provide such a valuable opportunity, since the instructional offering through Distance Education is limited to online communications and conversations, which are not as effective and convenient as face-to-face instructi ons (Bradford, 1999). Distance Education could be beneficial due to its budget efficiency possibilities, where an institution can effectively reduce the number of staff and still reach the same number of students as would happen with a large number of teachers in a classroom setting (Mayadas, Bourne, & Bacsich, 2009). However, the issue is that the quality of the education obtained by the large number of studen

Titration Lab Essay Example for Free

Titration Lab Essay The equivalence point is characterized by a sharp change of pH which can be followed with a pHmeter. A graph of pH versus concentration will indicate the molar equivalence at the inflexion point of the curve. The point observed experimentally is never exactly the molar equivalence but a â€Å"best estimate† and is given the name â€Å"end point†. It is easier and cheaper to identify the end point with an indicator instead a pHmeter. Some chemicals such as phenolphthalein will change color when the pH changes sharply between two given values called the indicator’s range. The range of phenolphthalein is 8. 3 to 10. 0. The shape of a pH curve varies widely with the type of reactants and needs to be taken into account when choosing an indicator. We will titrate a strong base (NaOH) of unknown concentration with a strong acid (HCl). The objective is to find the purity of NaOH pellets. The pellets are close to purity but not 100 % because NaOH is very hydrophilic and the pellets are likely to be slightly hydrated. The procedure: The first part of the laboratory experiment will be the preparation of the reactants and the choice of an indicator. You will need to prepare the analyte, a solution of NaOH, of a chosen concentration and volume and prepare a solution of HCl, the titrant, accordingly. Accordingly means that the end point should be reached after the delivery of manageable volume. If a 50. ml burette is used the volume to be delivered should be between 15. ml and 40 ml. The chosen concentration of NaOH means the concentration of NaOH that you would obtain if the tablets were pure, with the understanding the objective of the titration is to give you a more accurate measurement that you will use to calculate the purity of the tablet. Acid-base chemistry tells us that the reaction between the hydronium and hydroxide ions is extensive and that the pH of the equivalence point should be close to 7. You will design a titration procedure indicating the reactants, the equipment, the data to be collected and the calculations. You will then proceed with two or three measurements depending on the precision of the first two. Your report will review the chemical background, present the data and the result and justify in your error analysis the number of significant figures of your reported concentration. The average of the trial is 24. 3 mL. The molarity of NaOH was found by using the M1V1 = M2V2 equation, resulting in 1. 1 M of NaOH. Discussion In the Titrations Lab, 50. 0 mL of 0. M HCl and appropriate amount of NaOH were titrated to find  the molarity of NaOH and the pH of the solution after x mL of NaOH has been added. The lab discussed the difference between equivalence point, the point at which the reaction between titrant and unknown is complete, and the endpoint, the point where the indicator turns color. The color change occurs when the concentration of more dominant form is ten times as great as the less dominant. However, color changes in a solution does not necessarily equal to the equivalence point. Equivalence point can be found by observing the indicator, or using a pH meter and finding midpoint of vertical line in the titration curve. Endpoints can be found by observing the color change of the indicator. The titration lab also involved indicators. Indicators are substances which undergoes a color change in the pH interval of the equivalence point, allowing physical observation of pH change. Most indicators are weak acids, so protons shift from acid to conjugate base. The concentrations of indicators in a solution do not change molarity value.

Ghana and the Social Contract :: aristotle, family, values, communities

Aristotle rightly said that the family is the building block of the society and each family has its common values and preferences. Even though individuals may belong to the same family and society, they would have diverse opinions on what the society should be and where it should be headed. Even in the face of shared values by a society, there is another discriminant of individual’s value systems- their experiences. These experiences make them masters of themselves because they assume that their experiences are unique to only them and therefore these views should be recognized as valid. James O’Toole categorised the value systems of individuals under the four major themes of community, efficiency, liberty and equality (O'Toole, 1995). This paper reflects on the good society and its constituents in the light of these four themes. O’Toole believes these four are the great themes of political argument which face trade-offs with each other and have an inverse relati onship with each other, that is, an increase in one causes a decrease of the other. Thomas Jefferson considered the good society to be a society in which everyone was happy and I agree with that because happiness is the end product of various favourable factors in a person’s life. Furthermore, I am of the same view that a good society is one that ensures the rights of every member of the society. This is because every human being is innately self-seeking and this is evident in a child’s selfish efforts to attain his or her wants in spite of being young in knowledge of the society. Even though humans can be selfless, their basic needs should at least be met because the satisfaction of their needs sustain them and ensures their contentment. To ensure basic rights of individuals, it is essential to know which value they hold dear, whose fulfilment would bring them long lasting pleasure, thus, leading into the exploration of these major core values. Liberty is concerned with freedom of the individual in three spheres, which are in politics, religion and economics and this value births individuals who are known as libertarians. The modern Libertarian principle that these individuals operate by is that â€Å"the equal right to freedom constitutes the full extent of human equality; all other equalities are unwarranted and unjust† (O'Toole, 1995). Thus, libertarians support every kind of liberty which includes economic liberty hence, capitalism. As such they believe that government interventions in the free market stifle economic progress.

Jonathon Swift: A Modest Proposal Essay

Jonathon Swift: A Modest Proposal Jonathon Swift’s A Modest Proposal is a parody on the economic situation of the society in which he attempts to â€Å"find out a fair, cheap and easy method† (Swift) for the children in poverty to be put to good use for good of Ireland. This is seen right away in the full title of the pamphlet, â€Å"A Modern Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People from Being a Burden to their Parents, or the County, and for Making them Beneficial to the Publick.† The reader begins to realize that Swift does not actually wish to implement these ideas of a baby being â€Å"a most delicious nourishing, and wholesome food† (Swift) once this extreme idea is proposed. Through this extreme proposal of cannibalism and breeding children to solve poverty and overpopulation, he makes the reader vulnerable while also eager to find out more. As entertaining as this text is, it is more than just a comic. Swift wishes to relay a much deeper meaning to the reader. In Robert Phiddian’s article, Have You Eaten Yet., Phiddian recognizes â€Å"the moral-political argument being carried out by means of parody.† (Phiddian) The moral issue, here, is poverty and the political issue is population, yet rarely do these issues remain as clear and separate as intended. Look more:  satire essay examples essay While Swift initially makes the reader chuckle several times throughout the text, he is venting about the societal ills that go unnoticed daily. He is aggravated by the hypocrisy of the wealthy trying to help the poor by coming up with such outlandish ideas that they think will supposedly solve poverty. Poverty is inevitable in a free market therefore with the money that the poor would receive â€Å"may be liable to distress and help pay their Landlord’s rent.† (Swift) Swift wants the reader to realize that no matter how great the ideas of the wealthy are, their motivation is to make a buck from these plans that they devise in their parlors over a cup of tea. â€Å"There is nothing higher than selfish greed within the terms of economic discourse† as Phiddian points out. Even in society today, there are always those people that wish to solve the issue of poverty, but can’t seem to realize that these implications are not easily resolved and are part of socie ty. Swift had compassion for the Irish people and felt for them in their severe  state, but he also shows disgust with the people of Ireland for not even trying on their own behalf. Prior to Swift writing A Modest Proposal he had written several sermons, which provide a background into the state of Ireland and how the people ended up in this predicament. â€Å"The members of this class are being called to their responsibilities and reminded of the guilt they share for the condition of their country.† (Phiddian) Swift leaves no stone unturned in the text and does not excuse any party from the awful state that Ireland is in at this point in time. Swift manages to target most of the groups in Ireland including the politicians, aristocracy, and even the poor. These and outside causes like that of England are included in the parody. Essentially, Swift trying to get the reader to understand that not one person can solve the problems of poverty and overpopulation. In fact, it is part of society and has been for centuries. The struggles are apparent before Swifts time and even now. He is able to address two sets of readers in a sense; one of his time and one of the future, our time. â€Å"While people continue to starve and to live in abject poverty, an analogy exists between Swift’s readers’ situation and our own.† (Phiddian) The reader is able to identify with the subject and the point that Swift is trying to make of the societal ills of the time through this â€Å"moral-political argument.† (Phiddian) in turn see that behind the gore and obscene ideas that he has come up with, there is a voice that needs to be heard. What would normally be a boring economic update or a political argument over what the country needs to do has been transformed by Swift into a masterpiece that peeks the interest of those other than the politicians. He is able to catch our attention as a reader by many surprises and then able to make us think critically about policies, values, and society as a whole in general. Reference Page Robert Phiddian Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900 Vol. 36, No. 3, Restoration andEighteenth Century (Summer, 1996), pp. 603-621 Published by: Rice University

Effective and Ineffective Communication

Effective and Ineffective Communication Lisa Brady Loyola University Effective and Ineffective Communication Where we come from, what we’ve experienced, our culture, our norms, our circle of friends, and our history all affect the ways in which we communicate with each other. What constitutes effective and ineffective communication? How do we assess what works as opposed to what doesn’t? Communication is vital not only to patient care but in collaborating as a team to ensure goals are achieved.In Contemporary Nursing, Cherry states that â€Å"effective communication is a foundational component of professional nursing practice. † (Cherry & Jacob, 2011, p. 381) When I think of communication in the clinical setting, two examples are always in my fore mind both of which happened in nursing school. I keep these experiences in mind because they have had a profound effect on the ways in which I communicate with my patients daily. My example of ineffective communicat ion stems from a rotation I did in the ICU. I was apprehensive about going to the ICU. Was I ready?The patients were so acute and I was so inexperienced. I was filled with doubts and insecurity. The short version of this story entails an ICU nurse who was not aware she was getting a student and a shortage of computer tablets, so medications were pulled via a written paper brought to the pyxis. A patient was upset with medications he didn’t understand and the doctor had to be contacted. The doctor yelled at the nurse, the nurse ran from the unit crying and when she returned the scene was set for a near fatal accident. The nurse took me and her piece of paper to the pyxis and began to pull her medications.Again for time and space, the shortened version explains that the nurse mistakenly pulled a night medication due at hour of sleep instead of the day medication. The nurse then instructed the nursing student to pass these medications. By the time the nurse realized she had pull ed the wrong dosage and the nursing student had given them, the patient had to be intubated; stomach pumped and could easily have died. During this emergency treatment the nurse yelled at the nursing student, â€Å"and this is why you always check the computer prior to giving medication. I cannot express to you the fear, anger and confusion I had over what had transpired. I felt â€Å"thrown under the bus†. What had just happened? What happened was a serious disconnect in communication and a hard lesson in patient safety. The patient lived and recovered. I learned to never completely give up my power and to trust my instinct. I have never since and never will give a medication unless I have pulled it and have all the resources in front of me to verify the information.The nurse later wrote on my evaluation that we both needed to learn our five rights. I was angry but in retrospect she was right. I may not have pulled those medications but she told me to give them and I obeyed . I was utilizing non-assertive communication. I have always thought communication was my strong suit. I strive to use the â€Å"I† statements that Cherry suggests. (Cherry & Jacob, 2011) I believe strongly in Jan Hargrave’s concept that â€Å"55% of what we say is non-verbal,†¦38% is in voice reflection and only 7% is in the actual words we say. (Cherry & Jacob, 2011, p. 385) The difficulties that arise in communication; it is dependent on a host of factors, including non-verbal communication and interpretation of the information. (Cherry & Jacob, 2011) I have since learned assertive communication techniques and am currently working on responding instead of reacting. It is a lifelong process. My second example is one of effective communication. A young mom with two babies arrived to the ER. She had no insurance, and her baby presented with fever and signs of pneumonia.The ER doctor and the nurses expressed she was from the city hours away and was mos t likely attempting to obtain free care. The doctor discharged the patient and the nurses discussed amongst themselves the patient and the problems with patients abusing the system. Once again my gut instinct told me there was more to this patient and her story. I went to the patient to express concern and to listen and discovered that the patient was not at this particular hospital to avoid payment. She was in a domestic violence shelter with her two young babies and was attempting to change her life.It upset me that she was pre-judged like this, when all it would have taken was a few minutes of building a rapport and trust to get to the truth of the matter. It has truly made a difference in how I work with my patients. I try to truly listen to what they are â€Å"not† saying. To work with our patients on a holistic level we must actively listen, validate their concerns and their feelings and earn their trust. In conclusion there is so much to take into consideration regardi ng how we express ourselves and interact with each other as professionals and with our patients.We must always consider cultural differences and be keenly aware of body language. How we communicate with individuals varies greatly and is dependent upon where that person is in their life and at that moment. Physical touch is another form of communication and again must be assessed dependent on the person. Some patients don’t mind if we touch their hand or shoulder reassuringly, others are bothered by this. I always make an attempt to ask a patient for example if they are crying; can I give you hug?It is so important to maintain open communication but at the same time keep boundaries. It is a gift to be able to care for our patients but it can be difficult to find the right path of communication for each person. In the end we do the best we can, utilizing the tools we’ve been given and making every effort to be authentic, genuine and in the moment. References Cherry, B. , & Jacob, S. R. (2011). Contemporary nursing issues trends and management (5th ed. ). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Mosby.

Critical scholarship Essays

Critical scholarship Essays Critical scholarship Essay Critical scholarship Essay the plants of Schwartz and Wellhausen ) did Johannine beginning unfavorable judgment seem to be on a firmer methodological foundation. With the debut of an aporia as grounds of a literary seam, the changeless drum-beat of critical scholarship was that John 14:31d is the proto-typical aporia and that it clearly belongs next to 18:1. Yet, to happen a manner to do these texts neighbours once more has been the thorny issue for scholarship. Throughout the 20th century the solution offered to the instance of the magnus reus has taken four basic signifiers ( with a dizzying array of substitutions ) . In wide classs, the text has been seen as a converse, interpolated, taken, or authored text. In several fluctuations, John 14:31 originally followed on the heels of 18:1. Spitta and Wendt considered it the heterotaxy of an Ur-Gospel, and Bultmann at mid-century, saw a assortment of beginnings, but in general, the best account for the magnus reus was heterotaxy on the evidences of manner. M. Lattke was possibly the last to hold defended this position in 1974. In general, most observers today regard the position as indefensible, because the shamble of the deck seldom leads to general understanding beyond the posteriority of 14:3 1. Many today see 14:31 as grounds of an interpolated text. The inside informations of this proposed insertion are greatly varied. Some believe that it is the work of a foreign manus inserted into the step ining sweep by the revivalist. Others regard the insertion to be one or more discourses written by the revivalist and later added by either a reviser or the writer himself. Others ( like Wellhausen ) considered the add-on to be wholly foreign and held that it must hold been added by a reviser. At any rate, once more the premise is that 14:31 belongs next to 18:1 in the unimproved discourse. Dettwiler s Relecture Theory A speculation that is quickly deriving land on the continent and traveling into North America is Dettwiler s relecture theory. Here the premise is that instead than merely any interpolation or even a 2nd bill of exchange of the farewell discourse, much of the step ining sweep of text between 14:31 vitamin D and 18:1 is really an enlargement and re-application of 13:1-14:31. This reading and enlargement for a new epoch is non an effort to warrant the interpolation but to explicate the consensus already reached. The text is inserted to run into the demands of a ulterior coevals of the Johannine community. Again, the over curving templet is that the magnus reus creates such an crying aporia that it can merely be solved by proposing editing. The consequences of the structural probe leave the exegete with somewhat of a riddle. If the text is an emended mosaic, it has been wonderfully done. The reviser has chosen stuff from disparate contexts ( perchance of the same genre ) and wedded them in such a manner as to bring forth a consistent macro-structure that across the first two units of the text neer leaves the bid construction built-in in exhortative discourse and in the 3rd efficaciously reviews and passages to the high priestly prayer. Furthermore, the reviser may hold incorporated some synoptic traditional stuff ( 15:1-11 ) but has done so in a manner as non to go against the bid construction of the text and at the same time has marked it as the extremum of the text without a viing subdivision besides therefore marked. In this column chef-doeuvre, the reviser has besides efficaciously produced a text that is coherent in non merely organic ties but componential ties as good. In short, the text is wonderfully edited. But herein lays the riddle: this attractively and masterfully edited text has a glaring defect. A defect so crying, so obvious, that it is seized upon by beginning critics as the archetypal illustration that proves the farewell discourse and the Gospel are the consequences of multiple custodies. But, how could this fake pas be the consequence of an editor of such fantastic ability? What compounds the job is that it could hold been so easy solved before it of all time started. All the reviser needed to make was do his interpolation fifth part of a poetry earlier. This is such an easy and reasonable solution to the job that a reasonably skilled editor could hold seen it, but the reviser of the farewell discourse did non. Brodie sums it up nicely in his most recent commentary. He states, In discoursing the perplexing Arise, allow us travel ( 14:31 ) the first thing that needs to be said is that the column hypothesis is non satisfactory. Not that the redacting thought is inherently unattractive ; there is, in fact, an huge credibleness to the general thought of an editor who, given hard stuff, makes the best of it. But this general thought does non suit the instance ; the stuff ( in 14:3 1 ) is non hard. In fact, one could barely conceive of an easier column undertaking than traveling Arise, allow us go†¦ to the terminal of fellow. 17 But any editor who felt free to infix three chapters is improbable to hold had scruples about traveling half a poetry. In fact, it would non been have been necessary to travel Arise and allow us travel If, as is sometimes said, it instantly preceded the history of Jesus traveling out ( 18:1 ) , so, peculiarly since there were no chapter divisions at the clip, all the editor had to make was take the right topographic point for the insertion-in other words before Arise, allow us travel The logic of the column hypothesis leads to the thought that in some unusual manner the editor was both careful and bungling, free and scrupulous. Therefore, it is a hypothesis which lacks internal coherency. This lack of internal coherence is displayed in the literature by the proliferation of theories that attempt, in one manner or another, to put the magnus reus next to 18:1. The truth is, if history can be our usher that the proliferation of theories will go on. Older theories will be tweaked ; and callings will be built upon new and inventive attacks to the farewell discourse. At the bosom of this province of personal businesss is the interaction of three premises. First, that an aporia in the Fourth Gospel is, foremost and first, grounds of a literary seam ; 2nd, that it fits better next to 18:1 ; and therefore, 3rd, the magnus reus is the proto-typical aporia. However, these premises are far from proven. An Aporia Must Indicate A Literary Seam The usage of aporias in the word picture of beginnings has been the trademark of Old Testament higher unfavorable judgment for about two hundred old ages. The contention is that a non-sequitur or a unsmooth passage is by definition grounds of the amalgamation of beginnings by a reviser. This is, of class, a reductionistic ( if non simplistic ) attack that assumes merely one valid reply to a trouble. Yet, this is now so self-evident in higher critical circles that the philosophical underpinning for it is merely assumed as fact. Wellhausen neer explained why an aporia must be a literary seam. In fact, it is non until Otto Eissfeldt that Pentateuchal unfavorable judgment s standards of separation are clearly delineated. Schwartz, who coined the term aporia in relation to the Gospel of John, neer defends its usage ( or even defines its significance ) in the now-famous series of articles. Bacon besides made this premise when he remarked that the indicants point to what a geologist might name a fault in he literary strata, and, as the critic good knows, it is these faults which reveal the literary history of a papers ( accent added ) . Therefore, by 1894, Bacon sees no demand to support the deduction of a literary mistake, but merely cites its self-evident standing among critics. All this is to state that the current reading of aporias as, by and big, bespeaking literary seams is an old premise that is non, and has neer been, a proved rule but an premise. That is non to state that at that place have non been efforts to make so in the literature. One brief effort at demoing verifiable standards for beginning separation is the monograph by David M. Carr. Carr s treatment is, in many ways, a breath of fresh air from source-critical circles. He is careful and cautious in his claims and clearly recognizes the troubles in defining between a seam caused by a reviser or by an writer. Carr attempts to demo recoverable beginnings from ancient plants like the Diatesseron, the Gilgamesh heroic poem, comparings in Jeremiah from the LXX and the Masoretic Text, et Al. Carr makes the instance that repeat is a cardinal signal in beginning separation. However, he does non do a conclusive statement for know aparting between a redactional component and an auctorial device. For illustration, he cites the usage of resumptive repetition as grounds of a literary seam. However, he readily acknowledges that To be certain, writers can themselves utilize such resumptive repeat to restart the train of idea after their ain digression Carr concludes that terminological and ideological indexs must besides be present. However, even in his treatment of these devices he concludes that there is ever the opportunity the writer consciously altered the nomenclature to hold a certain consequence However, it is dubious that a certain Reconstruction of the examples like the Diatesseron could be executed without anterior cognition of the beginnings. So so, while the illustrations of emended texts that are produced may demo certain traits, these traits are non sole to redact ed texts. Another job is the nature of the redacted texts. The Diatesseron was an wholly new genre of literature: the Gospel harmoniousness. It is an improper measure to compare its redaction to the type proposed for the Pentateuch ( or the Fourth Gospel ) . In the same vena, some of Carr s Old Testament examples sum to text-critical enquiries instead than the weaving of beginnings to bring forth a new text. The lone similar illustration could be the Gilgamesh heroic poem, but it excessively has its jobs. In other words, the illustrations so far cited by Carr do non look to be comparings of similar redactional procedures. But, even so, there remains no lingual point that needfully points to a literary seam that could non hold been produced by an writer. An aporia, so, as grounds of a literary seam is still an premise. A revealing indictment of this premise comes instead unwittingly from an improbable beginning: the antecedently cited work by Otto Eissfeldt. He states, Alternatively of these [ traditional ] divisions, we must at any rate for the older content of Gen. to Josh. , and likely besides for that from Judg. to Sam. and into Kings, think in footings of strata. Merely so can we acquire a image of the literary beginnings which were used in their undertaking by the compilers or more properly revisers of the older basic stuff †¦ So, so, the separation of beginnings is impossible unless one begins with the premise of strata. Then, upon this premise, literary beds are delineated instead than clear, undeniable grounds that can merely be explained in footings of strata. Eissfeldt s observation is stating in that without the premise, the grounds does non oblige one to presume literary strata. It sounds really much like a theory in hunt of back uping grounds. But does the grounds support it? Many would reply negatively. In fact, among Pentateuchal beginning critics the now-traditional JEDP theory still holds sway to a grade, but today, due to the assortment and deepness of the statements against it, it must be smartly defended. Wenham characterizes the temper of scholarship as looking for a fresh and converting paradigm. Therefore Johannine beginning critics who defend the usage of an aporia as grounds of a literary seam on the footing of success in Pentateuchal unfavorable judgment do so at the hazard of being out of measure with the current province of the job. So, so, what does a Johannine aporia prove? In fact, small or nil solid. Carson notes that in utilizing Ross s graduated table of grounds ( conclusive, persuasive, implicative, impersonal, and irrelevant ) , aporias constitute no more than impersonal grounds. Carson goes on to propose that aporias should non be seen as cut-and-dry grounds for a literary seam for two grounds. First, an aporia may merely be an accident. He refrains from placing an inadvertent aporia in the Fourth Gospel. However, his point is that they are non unnatural phenomena, but built-in in composing. Most authors have, in fact, produced many of them without the benefit of faulting a 3rd party. Thus, an aporia is every bit likely created by an writer as an editor. In fact, the instance could be made that it is less likely in the instance of an editor who would be looking really carefully at the text. The following footing for cautiousness is that an aporia may be generated by some factor other than the gawky interpolation of a beginning. This 2nd ground for avoiding the designation of an aporia as a literary seam is likely the most weighty. The literary seam is merely one option for placing the ground for an aporia. There may, in fact, be many plausible grounds for an aporia. Sometimes the designation of an aporia is merely exaggerated. Is a poetic beginning to the Gospel so unlikely that the prologue could non be original? Do the enumeration of marks and their expiration needfully bespeak a literary seam? At 7:3-5 does the demand of Jesus brothers that he travel to Judea to execute marks truly indicate a trouble? True, he had already been in Jerusalem and performed marks ( see, e.g. , 5:1-9 ) , but should we truly name this an aporia when any figure of accounts can be offered ( including the writer s purpose to demo that Jesus brothers did non follow his motions and made the n atural adequate premise that the Messiah should make marks in Jerusalem ) ? These and many other alleged aporias do non look excessively implicative of a existent job, much less a literary seam. The step of turbulency or clumsiness appears to be modem western criterions. Could it be that merely these modem esthesias perceive the above-named aporias? One must state that if the Gospel is edited, the editor ( s ) of the Gospel saw no sufficient ground to presume that the text was dreadfully inconsistent. If he or they did non believe so, why are we at strivings to presume that an original author would hold operated under different premises? Would they non both operate under the same literary conventions? Consider Whybray s reaction to a similar phenomenon in Pentateuchal unfavorable judgment. In depicting a defect in the current Documentary Hypotheses of the Pentateuch, he states, If the paperss postulated by the hypothesis possessed some sort of integrity and consistency-and it is this which is held to give them plausibility-then the revisers were the individual who wantonly destroyed that integrity and consistency-and once more, the hypothesis depends on believing that th ey did. But this is simply to bear down the revisers with mistakes of logic and sensitiveness of which the advocates of the Documentary Hypothesis are at such strivings to shrive the writers of the paperss. If the revisers were unconcerned about these things, it is hard to understand on what grounds the advocates of the hypothesis maintain that the writers of the paperss were concerned about them. It seems more logical to reason that ancient Israelite thoughts of consistence were different from those of modern western adult male: that the Israelites were in fact to a big extent indifferent to what we should name incompatibilities. Weisse, Evangeliumfrage, 116. Buttmann, John, 459. Lattke, Einheit im Wort, 131-246. See, e.g. , Fortna, Predecessor, 151. See, e.g. , Barrett, John, 454-55. See, e.g. , Wellhausen, Erweiterungen and Anderungen, 8 and Schnackenburg, John, 3:89-90 Dettwiler, Gegenwart, 51-52. Brodie, John, 437. Note besides Robert Kysar s review of Fortna. He states, It is this inquiry [ gawky redacting ] which most earnestly plagues Fortna s admirable attending to the aporias of the text as the key to the solution of the literary mystifier of the book. How can one believe, on the one manus, that the revivalist was an sharp plenty theologian to feel the failings of his marks Gospel and subtly rectify them and yet, on the other manus, was such an inferior editor that he left glowering defects in the simple readability of his papers? Until that contradiction can be resolved, it seems that the value of the contextual standards will be earnestly impaired ( Robert Kysar, The Fourth Evangelist and His Evangel: An Examination of Contemporary Scholarship [ Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1975 ] , 36 ) . For an English interlingual rendition of the German 3rd edition, see Otto Eissfeldt, The Old Testament: An Introduction, trans. Peter R. Ackroyd ( New York: Harper A ; Row, 1965 ) , 182-88. Bacon, Displacement, 66. David M. Carr, Reading the Fractures of Genesis: Historical and Literary Approachs ( Louisville: Westminster, 1996 ) , 23-40. Carr is to be commended for trying to set the word picture of beginnings on empirical evidences. However, the trouble of such a proposal is shown in that his major grounds for empirical grounds comes from a individual beginning. See Jeffrey H. Tigay, ed. , Empirical Models for Biblical Criticism ( Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985 ) . This has frequently been brought into Johannine beginning separations as good. See Urban C. von Wahlde, The Earliest Version of John s Gospel: Recovering the Gospel of Signs ( Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1989 ) , 27. Carr, Reading the Fractures, 26. Ibid. , 32. See, e.g. , Carr s major work cited in this subdivision, Emanuel Tov, The Literary History of the Book of Jeremiah in Light of its Textual History, in Empirical Models, 211-37. It seems that the type of editing offered by the book of Jeremiah is an extended alteration and non the same originative nuptials that is under consideration for the Pentateuch and Johannine surveies. See Jeffrey H. Tigay, The Development of the Gilgamesh Epic ( Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982 ) . For brief responses californium. W. G. Lambert, reappraisal of The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic, by Jeffrey H. Tigay in Journal of Biblical Literature 104 ( 1985 ) : 115-17 ; but particularly see Joan Goodnick Westenholz, reappraisal of The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic, by Jeffrey H. Tigay in Journal of the American Oriental Society 104 ( 1984 ) : 370-72. Eissfeldt, Old Testament, 135-36. The Documentary Hypothesis as expressed by Wellhausen came under onslaught from its really beginning, but particularly in recent old ages. In Wellhausen s clip the authoritative rebuttals were by William Henry Green and James Orr. See William Henry Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch ( New York: Scribners, 1895 ; reissue, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1978 ) . See besides James On, The Problem of the Old Testament Considered with Reference to Recent Criticism ( New York: Scribners, 1906 ) . In more recent old ages several have expressed terrible unfavorable judgments against the cogency of the hypothesis. See, e.g. , Umberto Cassuto, The Documentary Hypothesis and the Composition of the Pentateuch, trans. Israel Abrahams ( Jerusalem: Magnes, 1941 ; reissue, Jerusalem: Magnes, 1961 ) ; Rolf Rendtorff, The Problem of the Process of Transmission in the Pentateuch, trans. John J. Scullion, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 89 ( Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990 ) ; R. N. Whybray, The Making of the Pentateuch: A Methodological Study, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement 53 ( Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1987 ) ; R. Norman Whybray, Introduction to the Pentateuch ( Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995 ) , 12-27 ; Gleason L. Archer, Jr. , A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, rpm. and exp. erectile dysfunction. ( Chicago: Moody, 1994 ) . For a recent survey of Pentateuchal beginning unfavorable judgment see Gordon J. Wenham, Chew overing the Pentateuch: The Search for a New Paradigm, in The Face of Old Testament Studies: A Survey of Contemporary Approaches, erectile dysfunction. David W. Baker and Bill T. Arnold ( Grand Rapids: Baker, 1999 ) : 116-44. David M. Carr, Controversy and Convergence in Recent Studies of the Formation of the Pentateuch, Interpretation 23 ( 1997 ) : 22. Wenham, Chew overing the Pentateuch, 119. Cf. R. N. Whybray s statement, despite the huge sum of scholarly work which has been published particularly during the past century refering the writing, day of the month, and history of composing of the Pentateuch, these are fundamentally side issues. The existent involvement for readers of the Bible does non lie here. If it did, the present coevals of readers would see merely defeat. For although it may be true that recent bookmans have succeeded in exposing many of the mistakes of earlier critics, it must be admitted that every bit far as assured consequences are concerned we are no nearer to certainty than when critical survey of the Pentateuch began ( Whybray, Introduction to the Pentateuch, 12 ) . See, e.g. , von Wahlde s justification of his methodological analysis. He does non warrant the usage of an aporia beyond its usage in Pentateuchal unfavorable judgment. He states, The success of Pentateuchal analysis indicates that such standards will supply a solid footing for analysis of the marks besides ( von Wahlde, Earliest Version, 28 ) . J. M. Ross, The Use of Evidence in New Testament Studies, Theology 79 ( 1976 ) : 216-17. D. A. Carson, Current Source Criticism of the Fourth Gospel: Some Methodological Questions, Journal of Biblical Literature 97 ( 1978 ) : 428. Ibid. , 424. The likely event that the elusive 7th mark in John s Gospel is the Temple cleaning of 2:14-17 could make some aporias for those who see an original beginning that has been reordered. For those who see this pericope as a Johannine mark see Beasley-Murray, John, 42 ; Carson, John, 181 ; Dodd, Interpretation, 300-303 ; Ridderbos, John, 121.

Official State Tree of U. S. States and Territories

Official State Tree of U. S. States and Territories All 50 states and several U.S. territories have officially embraced a state tree. All of these state trees, with the exception of Hawaiis state tree, are natives that naturally live and grow in the state in which they are designated. Each state tree is listed in order by state, common name, scientific name and the year of enabling legislation. You will also find a Smokey Bear poster of all state trees. Here you will see each tree, a fruit, and a leaf.   Alabama State Tree, longleaf pine, Pinus palustris, enacted 1997 Alaska State Tree, Sitka spruce, Picea sitchensis, enacted 1962 Arizona State Tree, Palo Verde, Cercidium microphyllum, enacted 1939 California State Tree, California redwood, Sequoia giganteum* Sequoia sempervirens*, enacted 1937/1953 Colorado State Tree, Colorado blue spruce, Picea pungens, enacted 1939 Connecticut State Tree, white oak, Quercus alba, enacted 1947 District of Columbia State Tree, scarlet oak, Quercus coccinea, enacted 1939 Delaware State Tree, American Holly, Ilex opaca, enacted 1939 Florida State Tree, Sabal palm, Sabal palmetto, enacted 1953 Georgia State Tree, live oak, Quercus virginiana, enacted 1937 Guam State Tree, ifil or ifit, Intsia bijuga Hawaii State Tree, kukui or candlenut, Aleurites moluccana, enacted 1959 Idaho State Tree, Western white pine, Pinus monticola, enacted 1935 Illinois State Tree, white oak, Quercus alba, enacted 1973 Indiana State Tree, tulip tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, enacted 1931 Iowa State Tree, oak, Quercus**, enacted 1961 Kansas State Tree, cottonwood, Populus deltoides, enacted 1937 Kentucky State Tree, tulip poplar, Liriodendron tulipifera, enacted 1994 Louisiana State Tree, bald cypress, Taxodium distichum, enacted 1963 Maine State Tree, eastern white pine, Pinus strobus, enacted 1945 Maryland State Tree, white oak , Quercus alba, enacted 1941 Massachusetts State Tree, American elm , Ulmus americana, enacted 1941 Michigan State Tree, eastern white pine , Pinus strobus, enacted 1955 Minnesota State Tree, red pine , Pinus resinosa, enacted 1945 Mississippi State Tree, magnolia, Magnolia***, enacted 1938 Missouri State Tree, flowering dogwood, Cornus florida, enacted 1955 Montana State Tree, Western yellow pine, Pinus ponderosa, enacted 1949 Nebraska State Tree, cottonwood, Populus deltoides, enacted 1972 Nevada State Tree, singleleaf pinyon pine, Pinus monophylla, enacted 1953 New Hampshire State Tree, white birch, Betula papyrifera, enacted 1947 New Jersey State Tree, Northern red oak, Quercus rubra, enacted 1950 New Mexico State Tree, pinyon pine, Pinus edulis, enacted 1949 New York State Tree, sugar maple, Acer saccharum, enacted 1956 North Carolina State Tree, pine, Pinus sp., enacted 1963 North Dakota State Tree, American elm, Ulmus americana, enacted 1947 Northern Marianas State Tree, flame tree, Delonix regia Ohio State Tree, buckeye, Aesculus glabra, enacted 1953 Oklahoma State Tree, Eastern redbud, Cercis canadensis, enacted 1937 Oregon State Tree, Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii, enacted 1939 Pennsylvania State Tree, eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis, enacted 1931 Puerto Rico State Tree, silk-cotton tree, Ceiba pentandra Rhode Island State Tree, red maple, Acer rubrum, enacted 1964 South Carolina State Tree, Sabel palm, Sabal palmetto, enacted 1939 South Dakota State Tree, black hills spruce, Picea glauca, enacted 1947 Tennessee State Tree, Tulip poplar, Liriodendron tulipifera, enacted 1947 Texas State Tree, pecan, Carya illinoinensis, enacted 1947 Utah State Tree, blue spruce, Picea pungens, enacted 1933 Vermont State Tree, sugar maple, Acer saccharum, enacted 1949 Virginia State Tree, flowering dogwood, Cornus florida, enacted 1956 Washington State Tree, Tsuga heterophylla, enacted 1947 West Virginia State Tree, sugar maple, Acer saccharum, enacted 1949 Wisconsin State Tree, sugar maple, Acer saccharum, enacted 1949 Wyoming State Tree, plains cottonwood, Poplus deltoides subsp. monilifera, enacted 1947 * California has designated two distinct species as its state tree.** Although Iowa did not designate a specific species of oak as its state tree, many people recognize bur oak, Quercus macrocarpa, as the state tree since it is the most widespread species in the state.*** Although no specific species of magnolia was designated as the state tree of Mississippi, most references recognize the Southern Magnolia, Magnolia grandiflora, as the state tree.This information was provided by the United States National Arboretum. Many state trees listed here can be found in the U.S. National Arboretums National Grove of State Trees.

The Importance of Distinguishing Between Acquisition and Learning in Essay

The Importance of Distinguishing Between Acquisition and Learning in Second Language Performance - Essay Example Yet we are now seeing greater importance placed on these issues and in turn a better understanding of the multiple and varying difficulties that a student of second language acquisition can face. Differentiating between learning and acquisition signifies that these factors have a special place alongside that of the traditional problems of language learning. It is important to highlight on the word 'alongside' because differentiating between the two should not mean that either takes predominance or that there should be some kind of theoretical showdown, but rather that each term find its proper place and do its proper job. By taking into consideration both acquisition and learning and making a differentiation between the two we are better able to understand all sides of second language learning. To better understand the nature of the discussion around the manners with which we learn to speak a second language it is important to first define the terms we are using. First and foremost it should be noted that 'acquisition' and 'learning' aggregate significant meaning to the word language. Acquisition is defined as the act of acquiring or gaining something through one's own efforts and/or experience.1 Learning, on the other hand is defined as the act, process, or experience of gaining knowledge or skill, usually through schooling or studying.2 The term second language learning has traditionally been used to describe the process of learning a second language through formal instruction. For example, adults taking English classes are described as learning a language, not acquiring it. In Krashen's (1981) theory of second language performance he works with the distinction between acquisition and learning.3 Second language performance would be the term that encompasses the two independent systems, the acquired system and the learned system. The former is described as being the product of the human subconscious and entails meaningful interaction, while the later is the product of formal instruction and results in conscious knowledge of the language. In Krashen's input hypothesis he puts forth his theory on how one obtains the knowledge of a second language through language acquisition.4 He explains that an individual perks up along the natural order of learning a language. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Different learners have different capacity and competence for seeking knowledge or absorbing new material. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen argues that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.5 Krashen's ground breaking work called to the forefront the long ignored area of psycholinguistics which focuses on the pivotal role feelings and sentiments play during the accumulation of a second language. At the core of his work is the belief that language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules but rather meaningful interaction with the target language, what he calls a 'natural